The European Trade Union Institute (ETUI) hosted the conference “Future of Work” in Brussels on February 10-11, 2026, bringing together researchers, policymakers, and practitioners to examine how contemporary transformations are reshaping the world of work. Among the contributions was a presentation by DiPLab’s Paola Tubaro, who offered crucial insights into the relationship between artificial intelligence and job quality. Tubaro’s presentation centered on a forthcoming chapter titled “What is AI doing to Job Quality? Platformization, Fissured Workplaces and Dispersion,” co-authored with Antonio Casilli. This work will appear in the new edited volume Job Quality in a Turbulent Era, edited by Janine Leschke and Agnieszka Piasna and published by Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. The chapter’s key intervention challenges a common assumption in discussions about AI and work: that technology alone determines outcomes for workers. As Tubaro emphasized during her presentation, AI does not operate in a vacuum. Instead, its impacts on job quality emerge from the broader political economy and organizational contexts in which these technologies are introduced and deployed. The chapter explores three interconnected phenomena transforming contemporary work: * Platformization: The expansion of platform-based work arrangements that mediate labor through digital technologies, creating new forms of employment relationships and power dynamics. * Fissured Workplaces: The fragmentation of traditional employment structures, where work is increasingly outsourced, subcontracted, or restructured in ways that distance workers from the organizations that benefit from their labor. * Dispersion: The geographic and organizational scattering of work processes, enabled by digital technologies but shaped by strategic choices about how to organize production and manage labor. The conference featured a preview of the new book on job quality, with editors Leschke and Piasna exploring how AI, digitalisation, and decarbonisation are reshaping work organization and affecting core components of job quality—not through technological inevitability, but through deliberate choices made by organizations and policymakers. Dr. Funda Ustek Spilda complemented these discussions with concrete insights on datafication and surveillance practices at companies like Sama and Amazon UK, demonstrating how these dynamics transform work on the ground. Dr. Massimo Mensi, serving as discussant, reinforced a crucial theme: governance choices matter more than the technology itself. He also challenged the common framing of training as a cost, arguing instead that it should be understood as an investment in workers and work quality. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DiPLab is proud to announce the publication of our latest research report: Data Work in Egypt: Who Are the Workers Behind Artificial Intelligence? This new study, led by Dr. Myriam Raymond with Lucy Neveux, Prof. Antonio A. Casilli, and Dr. Paola Tubaro, provides the first comprehensive examination of Egyptian data workers training AI systems for tech giants worldwide. How to cite this report: > Myriam Raymond, Lucy Neveux, Antonio A. Casilli, Paola Tubaro (2025). “Data > Work in Egypt. Who are the Workers Behind Artificial Intelligence”. DiPLab > Report. <https://hal.science/hal-05417930> > > Tweet Rapport DiPLab Egypte-DefcDownload KEY FINDINGS AT A GLANCE Our survey of over 600 Egyptian platform workers reveals a troubling reality: * Three-quarters depend on platform income to pay their bills * Average monthly earnings: $58.76 (less than half Egypt’s minimum wage of $147) * Hourly rate: $1.22 (compared to global average of $4.43 in 2018) * 76% identify as men, 74% are between 18-34 years old * 60% hold bachelor’s degrees in science or technical fields * 83% work on platforms out of financial necessity Both male and female data workers tend to be younger than the general Egyptian workforce A WORKFORCE IN CRISIS While Silicon Valley celebrates AI breakthroughs, our research exposes the human cost behind these innovations. Egyptian workers perform essential tasks—labeling images, transcribing audio, evaluating content, annotating data—that train machine learning models used globally. Yet they earn poverty wages for skilled work requiring technical knowledge and multilingual literacy. “We were struck by the contradiction,” says lead researcher Dr. Myriam Raymond. “These are highly educated individuals—60% hold bachelor’s degrees in science or technical fields—yet they’re earning $1.22 per hour on average, working for global tech companies that profit enormously from their labor.” Our data reveals severe income volatility. Rather than providing stable supplemental income, platform work traps Egyptian workers in a cycle of precarity: Most workers experience volatile or extremely volatile income, with earnings fluctuating dramatically month to month When we asked how workers used their last month’s platform earnings, the results were stark: the overwhelming majority spent their income immediately on rent, food, and clothes. Only a tiny fraction had the financial security to use earnings for hobbies or savings. Platform work serves as a lifeline rather than a source of financial flexibility CONDITIONS WORSE THAN SEVEN YEARS AGO Comparing our findings with the International Labor Organization’s 2018 global study reveals a disturbing trend: conditions for data workers have deteriorated significantly. * Increased education requirements: 70% now hold bachelor’s degrees vs. 57% globally in 2018 * Hourly rates dropped 72%: from $4.43 (2018 global average) to $1.22 (Egypt 2025) * Workforce demographic shift: from married adults with children to precarious single young people OUR RECOMMENDATIONS DiPLab’s report concludes with actionable policy recommendations: For Governments: * Improve measurement of data work in official statistics * Promote financial inclusion for platform workers * Simplify activity registration to encourage formalization * Ensure social security coverage For Platforms: * Implement transparent payment systems with minimum wage requirements * Disclose task allocation criteria clearly * Establish fair conflict resolution mechanisms * Provide dedicated worker support

We are pleased to announce that DiPLab co-director Paola Tubaro presented at the annual conference of the European Trade Union Institute (ETUI) on Occupational Safety and Health (OSH), dedicated to the age of artificial intelligence. In her presentation, she challenged common narratives of automation by revealing a fundamental truth: behind the “magic” of contemporary AI lies intensive human labor. This includes the often-invisible work of data annotators, content moderators, translators, voice actors, and numerous other workers who make AI systems function. Paola Tubaro’s research highlights how OSH issues in AI production arise directly from the organization of this work. The combination of outsourcing, offshoring, and digital intermediation creates precarious labor conditions that significantly affect workers’ mental health and well-being. Her presentation focused on three critical dimensions of occupational health risks: * Stress from uncertainty and long/unusual working hours: Data workers face unstable employment conditions, irregular schedules, and the constant pressure of uncertain income streams. * Social isolation: The digitally mediated nature of this work, often performed remotely and with little direct human contact, contributes to profound feelings of isolation among workers. * Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Content moderation workers, in particular, face severe psychological consequences from repeated exposure to disturbing, violent, or traumatic content. The ETUI annual conference on Occupational Safety and Health brought together researchers, trade union representatives, policymakers, and practitioners to examine the challenges and opportunities that artificial intelligence presents for workplace safety and health across Europe. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

We are excited to share an important milestone in our research: the publication of a new article just published in a special issue of the journal Globalizations by DiPLab co-founder Paola Tubaro, introducing and developing the concept of the “dual footprint”: the idea that every digital process leaves both a data work imprint and a material, environmental one. The impacts of artificial intelligence on the natural and social surroundings that supply resources for its production and use have been studied separately so far. Tubaro employs the “dual footprint” as a heuristic device to capture the commonalities and interdependencies between them. She uses two in-depth case studies – international flows of raw materials and of data work services between Argentina and the United States on the one hand, and between Madagascar, France and East Asia on the other. They portray the AI industry as a value chain that spans national boundaries and perpetuates inherited global inequalities. The countries that drive AI development, mostly in the Global North, generate a massive demand for inputs and trigger social costs that, through the value chain, largely fall on more peripheral actors. The arrangements in place distribute the costs and benefits of AI unequally, resulting in unsustainable practices and preventing the upward mobility of more disadvantaged countries. If you want to cite this article: > Tubaro, P. (2025). The dual footprint of artificial intelligence: > environmental and social impacts across the globe. Globalizations, 1–18. > https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2025.2589571 You can access the preprint version here: DualFootprint_12072025Download The dual footprint grasps how the environmental and social dimensions of AI production emanate from similar underlying socio-economic processes and geographical trajectories. This framework helps us better understand the true costs of digitalization and the global inequalities it reproduces. It also constitutes the foundation of SEED – Social and Environmental Effects of Data Connectivity, a new project that investigates how data extraction and material extraction are deeply interconnected. It stems from a collaboration with the Núcleo Milenio FAIR at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile and compares data and material infrastructures between Europe and South America.

Succede che quando si spegne una luce, altre si accendano. Per rimediare al buio, innanzitutto. Ma anche perché prende avvio una sorta di trasmissione di energia e di afflati vitali, di propagazione e diffusione di potenza. Come nei vasi comunicanti, il contenuto non sparisce ma viceversa tracima e si distribuisce. Eravamo sulle scale di [...]

At the WORK2025 conference in Turku, Finland, DiPLab co-founders Antonio Casilli and Paola Tubaro presented the results of their ongoing research documenting the human labor networks that power artificial intelligence systems worldwide. Casilli’s keynote (video 00:29-1:36:00), “Where does AI come from? Global circulation of data and human labor behind automation,” emphasized that AI systems are fundamentally built upon hidden human labor—specifically digital annotation, verification, transcription, moderation, and impersonation of data. This labor is fragmented, precarious, and carried out through digital platforms, predominantly by workers in the Global South who remain unrecognized in dominant AI discourses. Casilli presentation starts with an excerpts from the documentary In the Belly of AI (co-written with Julien Goetz and directed by Henri Poulain), describing the working conditions of women annotating data and producing AI from Finnish prisons for 3 euros per day. In the rest of his keynote speech, drawing from the decade-long research of the DiPLab program, Casilli explored how data work is organized across Africa, Asia, Latin America, as well as Europe and North America, revealing models that support different types of data tasks while reinforcing enduring inequalities in wages, job security, and working conditions that particularly affect Global South workers. He highlighted the increasingly convoluted nature of these supply chains involving several intermediaries—from global tech firms to local freelancers—spanning continents, making it extremely challenging to trace accountability and working conditions. Tubaro’s presentation, “Women in the loop: the gendered contribution of data workers to AI,” examined who actually performs this crucial but undervalued work, focusing on women’s participation as the market has expanded. While data work appears theoretically well-suited for women since it can be performed remotely from home and platforms generally limit direct gender discrimination, statistical evidence reveals mixed patterns with women exceeding 50% of data workers in only four documented cases. Her research showed that in crisis-stricken countries like Venezuela, international platforms attract highly qualified workers in fierce competition, often dominated by young men with STEM backgrounds who crowd out women constrained by care responsibilities or fewer technical qualifications. Conversely, in more dynamic economies like Brazil, local job markets absorb highly skilled professionals, leaving platform work to more disadvantaged groups where women with family duties become more visible. This creates a paradox where women may be equally educated but lack time to cultivate advanced STEM skills, and as platforms demand longer, more specialized tasks, men increasingly gain advantages even in countries where women were once the majority. Both presentations converged on a critical insight: platform design treats workers as abstract entities, stripped of socio-economic and cultural contexts that shape real inequalities, while competition combined with local conditions deepens gender and regional disparities. sq

DiPLab researchers Paola Tubaro and Antonio Casilli recently completed a research mission to Santiago, Chile, participating in key academic events that advanced understanding of artificial intelligence’s social and environmental dimensions. Tubaro delivered a keynote address at the 4th annual workshop of the Millennium Nucleus on the Evolution of Work (M-NEW), where she serves as a senior international member. The interdisciplinary workshop convened labor scholars from across Latin America and internationally to examine contemporary work transformations. Her presentation drew on DiPLab’s multi-year research program investigating the invisible human labor underlying global AI production. Tubaro’s analysis traced the evolution of this work form over two decades, demonstrating that while core functions in smart system development have remained consistent, the scope and volume of these tasks have expanded significantly. Tubaro and Casilli also participated in the inaugural meeting of SEED (“Social and Environmental Effects of Data connectivity: Hybrid ecologies of transoceanic cables and data centers in Chile and France”), a new collaborative research project between DiPLab and the Millennium Nucleus FAIR (“Futures of Artificial Intelligence Research”). The project has received joint funding from the ECOS-SUD programme (France) and ANID (Chile) to analyze the complete AI value chain, examining production, development, employment impacts, usage patterns, and environmental consequences through comparative study of the Valparaíso-Santiago de Chile and Marseille-Paris corridors. In their SEED presentations, Tubaro and Casilli introduced the concept of the “dual footprint” as an analytical framework for understanding the interconnected environmental and social impacts of AI systems. This heuristic device captures commonalities and interdependencies between AI’s effects on natural and social environments that provide resources for its production and deployment. DiPLab researchers framed the AI industry as a transnational value chain that perpetuates existing global inequalities. Countries driving AI development generate substantial demand for inputs while externalizing social costs through the value chain to more peripheral actors. These arrangements distribute AI’s costs and benefits unequally, resulting in unsustainable practices and limiting upward mobility for disadvantaged countries. The dual footprint framework demonstrates how environmental and social dimensions of AI emerge from similar structural dynamics, providing a unified approach to understanding AI’s comprehensive impact on global resource systems.

On 16-17 May 2025, DiPLab’s Paola Tubaro was invited by the French Institute in Argentina to participate in its landmark event “Night of Ideas.” At world-famous Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires, she spoke in panels that provocatively questioned the “new voluntary servitude” of platform work and asked whether “in AI we trust?” On 20 May, she gave a talk on “The Future of Work and AI” at the prestigious University of Buenos Aires. She presented some results of her research on digital labor and its role in AI production, developed in the framework of the DiPLab research program. No Caption No Caption No Caption No Caption

DiPLab researcher Paola Tubaro recently completed a research and outreach mission to Argentina, participating in multiple academic and policy events. This mission represents DiPLab’s continued commitment to international research collaboration and knowledge transfer. Through presentations to policy makers, academic audiences, and students, the trip facilitated the dissemination of DiPLab’s research on digital labor, platform economics, and AI governance to diverse stakeholders in the Argentine academic and policy communities. On May 12, Tubaro participated in the conference “Manipulación Informativa e Injerencia Extranjera: Desafíos Globales y Respuestas Democráticas,” organized by the European Union Delegation in Argentina in collaboration with several embassies, including France. In the panel “Cómo contrarrestar la desinformación respetando la libertad de expresión y el derecho a la información,” Tubaro presented research findings on the economic mechanisms underlying disinformation, specifically examining how advertising markets sustain false information dissemination across digital platforms. She addressed the regulatory challenges surrounding these markets and discussed the role of scientific research in developing evidence-based policy responses, referencing ongoing work within the EU-funded AI4TRUST project. On May 13, Tubaro delivered presentations on internet disinformation to journalism students at two Argentine institutions: Universidad Nacional de Avellaneda and Universidad Abierta Interamericana,. These sessions focused on the intersection of digital platforms, information verification, and journalistic practice in the contemporary media landscape. During May 16-17, Tubaro participated in three panels within the “Noche de las Ideas” program, an annual initiative of the French Institute held at Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires. The 2024 theme was “El poder de actuar” (The Power to Act). Her contributions included: the opening session addressing the annual theme, a panel discussion “¿Nuevas servidumbres voluntarias? Jóvenes y precariedad” examining digital platform labor conditions and youth employment, and the panel “‘In A.I. we trust?’ Actuar con y en contra de las nuevas tecnologías” analyzing artificial intelligence governance and regulation On May 20, Tubaro presented “Universidad Nacional de Avellaneda y en la Universidad Abierta Interamericana,” (The Future of Work and AI) as part of the UBA Digital lecture series at Universidad de Buenos Aires. The presentation featured research findings from DiPLab’s ongoing investigation into digital labor and its role in artificial intelligence production systems. The session was hosted by the Faculty of Dentistry, which also provided a tour of their clinical facilities.

On May 1st, 2025—Labor Day—France24 hosted a timely televised debate on the fears and opportunities that artificial intelligence presents for workers. Among the guests was Paola Tubaro, co-founder of DiPLab and a researcher at CNRS, who offered a sharp perspective on the discussion. The conversation revolved around a deep contradiction. On one hand, a widespread fear that AI will replace human labor, destabilize job markets, and deepen inequality. Certain jobs—especially those involving routine or precarious tasks—seem to be far more vulnerable than others. On the other hand, AI is also seen as a potential opportunity: the beginning of a “new industrial revolution”, capable of transforming how we work, influencing education, creating new room for social dialogue between employers, governments, and workers. Click here for video Yet Dr. Tubaro urged viewers to go further than surface-level concerns, by shifting the focus toward a more often overlooked question: how AI is produced, and by whom. Behind every “intelligent” machine lies a hidden human infrastructure—thousands of workers labeling data, training algorithms, and moderating online content. These workers, often located in the Global South, remain largely invisible, underpaid, and unprotected. For Tubaro, these workers are among those most overlooked in the AI-driven economy, often bearing the hidden costs of innovation. > “The struggles and union efforts of data workers in the Global South are > especially powerful because they’re not just fighting for better > conditions—they’re putting forward a vision of what AI should be, and what > kind of future it could help us build.” (Paola Tubaro, France24, 1 mai 2025) However, their story does not end there. These same workers are now at the forefront of organizing and resistance, pushing back against the terms of their exploitation and offering alternative visions of an AI-driven world. They are contributing a powerful voice to the global conversation about technology and fairness.